Book Review: Human Communication as Narration

In perhaps his most important contribution to rhetorical theory and the understanding of human communication, Walter Fisher presents an explanation of his narrative paradigm in Human Communication as Narration: Toward a Philosophy of Reason, Value and Action. This book essentially elaborates on and refines Fisher’s previous articles on the narrative paradigm and aims to present a more complete explanation of the theory’s roots, as well as its main tenets and relevant applications.Human Communication as Narration begins with an exhaustive examination of the history of narratives and logic, which includes his assertion that the logic by which human communication should be assessed return to the roots of the original meaning of logos: â€Å"story, reason, rationale, conception, discourse, thought† (p. 10). He asserts that Plato and Aristotle transformed the word logos into a specific term that applied only to philosophical/technical discourse, which launched a †Å"historical hegemonic struggle† that has lasted for more than 2,000 years (p. 10).Fisher explains that the positivist, â€Å"rational-world paradigm† that emphasized formal logic and reasoning (p. 58) is improved upon with his view of a more post-modern, ontological foundation where meaning is co-created through less formal structures like stories. In resurrecting the original meaning of logos, grounding his theory in ontology, and classifying human beings as â€Å"Homo narrans† (p. xi) , or storytelling animals, Fisher rejects the notion that technical logic is the only path to truth and knowledge, and argues that, as the ancients believed, all human communication is rational and contains truth and knowledge (p. 0). This more inclusive account of human communication together with the view that all human communication needs to be seen as stories sets the foundation for Fishers’ theory of narratives. In presenting the main points of his narrative theory ov er several chapters, Fisher explains that humans experience and understand life as a series of ongoing narratives, and that these stories are symbolic interpretations of â€Å"aspects of the world that [are] historically and culturally grounded and shaped by human personality† (p. 9). Given that stories are more than just a figure of speech and have the power to both inform and influence, Fisher establishes â€Å"narrative rationality† as a universal logic and means for the assessment for stories that is accessible by nature to all human beings (p. 47). This assessment is tested against narrative â€Å"probability (coherence) and fidelity (truthfulness and reliability)† (p. 47) – in other words, humans come to believe in and act on stories in so much as they relate to and identify with them.Going back to his assertion that human communication doesn’t have to exist in perfect structures of rhetorical arguments, he further explains that all humans po ssess the ability to reason and can therefore both communicate and accept truth as â€Å"good reasons† (p. 105). Perhaps an even better, more succinct explanation of this comes earlier in the book where Fisher states that â€Å"the materials of the narrative paradigm are symbols, signs of consubstantiation, and good reasons [are] the communicative expression of social reality† (p. 5). By including both formal logic and a logic of â€Å"good reasons† in the basis for argument, Fisher’s narrative paradigm contributes to rhetorical theory by expanding the meaning of persuasion just as Burke’s theory of identification did. Since the average person isn’t trained in formal logic, Fisher believed that the logic of good reasons (i. e. common sense), sits above all other persuasive means since it is universal and inherent in all human communication.Fisher goes on to assert that narrative rationality should also be â€Å"the foundation on which a com plete theory of rhetoric needs to be built† (p. 194). In this sense, the selection of stories we tell and come to accept is demonstrative of who we are and what we want others to believe about us. In the final section of his book, Fisher applies his narrative rationality in several real-world case studies including the rhetoric of Ronald Reagan, Death of a Salesman, The Great Gatsby and the philosophical discussion between Socrates and Callicles in Plato’s Gorgias.These examples provide a helpful demonstration of how narrative rationality can be used to assess the coherence, truthfulness and reliability of stories across a wide range of contexts. In conceptualizing and applying narrative rationality, Fisher contributes an important method for the study of narratives in a variety of communication contexts, which is one of the most important contributions he makes to the study of communication. Through Human Communication as Narration, Fisher provided a more accessible, u niversal means for communicating and understanding human truth.Drawing inspiration from the works of Kenneth Burke, Alasdair MacIntyre, Stephen Toulmin and Chaim Perelman, Fisher’s narrative paradigm argues that formal logic and the positivist view are inadequately prepared to account for the motives and values in human communication. He offers a broader explanation that all forms of human communication are driven by and evolve from our inherent need to determine whether an accounting of new knowledge matches up with what we already know.In the 30 years since Human Communication as Narration was first published, scholars and professionals from a wide range of disciplines have applied Fisher’s narrative paradigm in a variety of contexts. Narrative methods for rhetorical analysis and criticism have been used by Barbara Sharf (1990), Hollihan and Riley (1987), and Michael Cornfield (1992), among many others. In 1993, David Mains argued that the time was ripe for a move to ward narrative sociology, which asserted that â€Å"sociology’s phenomena is made up precisely of stories† (p. 2) as well as that sociologists are mainly narrators. The use of narratives as a means for persuasion in advertising and public relations has been widely documented in recent years by Cinzia Bianchi (2011); Barbara Stern, Craig Thompson and Eric Arnould (1998); and Melanie Green (2006). The narrative paradigm has also been deployed in interpersonal communication and organizational communication (Ashcraft & Pacanowsky, 1996). And a large body of research has been dedicated to the study of narratives as a strategy in conflict resolution as well (Gergen & Gergen, 2006; Sandole et al. 2009). These are just a few of the ways in which Fisher’s narrative paradigm still contributes to the understanding of human communication today. But while the narrative paradigm has enjoyed a renaissance of late with new research that refines and extends the theory (Currie, 2 005; Kirkwood, 1992; McClure, 2009; Stroud, 2002), largely due to its growing multi-disciplinary interest as noted above, it has also attracted much criticism. But while these scholars recognized its value, they have also demonstrated that it is not as useful for critical analysis as it aimed to be.Stroud (2002) found issue with the lack of account for contradiction in stories when assessing narrative rationality. Kirkwood (1992) felt that Fisher’s narrative rationality is limiting in that it doesn’t allow for the possibilities of new stories to be accepted and acted upon. He goes on to argue that a â€Å"rhetoric of possibility† presented through narratives can better account for how rhetors challenge people with â€Å"new and unsuspected possibilities of being and action in the world† (Kirkwood, 1992, p. 31).McClure (2009) also specifically argued that the narrative paradigm must also account for the â€Å"inventional possibilities of new narratives, t he rhetorical revision of old narratives, and the appeal and acceptance of improbable narrative accounts† (p. 191). He also asserts that by expanding the role of Burke’s identification, the narrative paradigm can become a more viable theory and method of criticism. While several scholars have both praised and criticized Fisher’s narrative paradigm, the part of his story that related to narrative’s origins, philosophical foundation and relevance to human communication rang true for me.In my study of rhetorical theory I, too, have often felt that the structures of formal argument are too constricting and limiting in their ability to interpret all forms of persuasive communication. When using Fisher’s own narrative rationality to measure the coherence and fidelity of Human Communication as Narration, I find it to be both coherent and true – especially from my viewpoint as a woman living in a post-modern, post-structuralist society who works in t he field of public relations where stories are the very fabric of our communication strategies.And while I recognize the validity of the proposed extensions of his theory by Kirkwood (1992), McClure (2009) and Stroud (2002), I feel they also serve as proof points for the generative power of Fisher’s paradigm in new ways of thinking about stories. References Ashcraft, K. & Pacanowsky, M. (1996). â€Å"A woman’s worst enemy†: Reflections on a narrative of organizational life and female identity. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 24, 217-239. Bianchi, C. (2011). Semiotic approaches to advertising texts and strategies: Narrative, passion, marketing.Semiotica, 183, 243-271. Cornfield, M. (1992). The press and political controversy: The case for narrative analysis. Political Communication, 9, 47-59. Currie, M. (2005). Postmodern narrative theory. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Fisher, W. R. (1987). Human communication as narration: Toward a philosophy o f reason, value and action. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. Gergen, M. & Gergen, K. (2006). Narratives in action. Narrative Inquiry, 16, 112-121. Green, M. (2006). Narratives and cancer communication. Journal of Communication, 56, 163-183.Hollihan, T. & Riley, P. (1987). The rhetorical power of a compelling story. Communication Quarterly, 35, 13-25. Kirkwood, W. G. (1992). Narrative and the rhetoric of possibility. Communication Monographs, 59, 30-47. Maines, D. (1993). Narrative’s moment and sociology’s phenomena: Toward a narrative sociology. The Sociological Quarterly, 34, 17-38. McClure, K. (2009). Resurrecting the narrative paradigm: Identification and the case of Young Earth Creationism. Rhetoric Society Quarterly, 39, 189-211. Sandole, D. , Byrne, S. , Sandole-Saroste, I. & Senehi, J. Eds. ). (2009). The handbook of conflict analysis and resolution. Routledge: New York. Sharf, B. (1990). Physician-patient communication as interpersonal rhetoric : A narrative approach. Health Communication, 2, 217-231. Stern, B. , Thompson, C. & Arnould, E. (1998). Narrative analysis of a marketing relationship: The consumer's perspective. Psychology & Marketing, 15, 195-214. Stroud, S. (2002). Multivalent narratives: Extending the narrative paradigm with insights from ancient philosophical thought. Western Journal of Communication, 66, 369-393.

Personal and Professional Development Plan Essay

Executive SummaryI am Saung Thet Zune Soe. I am attending MBA at Myanmar Imperial College and performing as a general manager at La Yeik Wah General Co.ltd. In my MBA program, I have studied personal and professional development subject and that subject gives me abundant of knowledge about how to align and develop myself with my personal and professional objectives. So after accomplishing that subject, I have decided to conduct my personal and professional development plan. Company ProfileLa Yeik Wah General Co.ltd was founded in 2004 by the founder U Win Nay Soe and Daw  Cheery. It was started with small family business like agriculture and landscaping. It has its agriculture branches in Taunggyi. Then it was developed into mining company in 2010. It has some gold mine in Shwe Kyin and other mineral mines like gypsum in Mout Mal, Shan state and Granite mine in Tha Tone, Kayin State. In 2012, it exported minerals like gypsum and granite to the Korea. In 2013, it co-operated with Hanbaek International Trade Company from Korea and started doing export, import and entertainment. It exports; sweet potato starch and other agriculture raw products to Korea and import back healthy juice and herbal medicine, cosmetic, cigarette and juywi cookie from Korea. It is now develop into a large company form the small business company. There are various department under La Yeik Wah, they are Marketing Department Operation Department Finance and accounting Department Human resource Department Research and Development Vision Our vision is to become one of the successful business operations in the country. Mission Our mission is to provide the best service and product to the customers with reasonable price. Objectives To get 10% profit within a year. To be the very successful entertainment company in the end of 2014. To penetrate the local market in a year with entertainment sector. As a general manager and a key member of the company management level, I am responsible for managing the whole organization’s operation and direction. I need to make sure that company goals are met in a timely manner with effectively and efficiently managing personnel and resources. Together with role of General Manager, my duties include managing overall operation of various departments with direct dealing with the department head, motivating and coaching team leader with frequent one-on-one focused discussion, reviewing financial statement and reports to measure productivity and margins and profits of the business with determining areas of cost reduction and cost improvement. Underneath is the job description of general manager of La Yeik  Wah General Co.ltd. Job Description of General ManagerJob Title: General Manager Report to: Managing D irector Location: Yangon Job Purpose: Obtains profit contribution by managing staffs; establishing and accomplishing business objectives Min roles and responsibilities Increases management effectiveness by recruiting, selecting, orienting, training, coaching, counseling and disciplining managers; communicating values, strategies and objectives; assigning accountabilities, planning, monitoring and appraising job results; developing incentives; developing a climate for offering information or opinions; providing educational opportunities. Board of directors, including arranging meetings and agendas, attending and minting meetings. Provide recommendation regarding investment and cash strategies. Provide vision regarding overall financial health of the company. Insure accurate documentation of production and quality control data and records. Ensure good housekeeping at all sites at all time. Assist in development of forms and tools to increase company efficiency and risk management. Builds company image by collaborating with customers, government, community organizations and employees; enforcing ethical business practice. Understanding of law and business law of Myanmar. Contributes to team efforts by accomplishing related results as needed. Required skills and ability College Graduate or Equivalent experiences Proven skills of business and financial management Ability to work in proactively diverse and inclusive organization Excellent interpersonal, verbal and written communication skills Ability to manage and supervise a staff team Effective problem solving and mediation skills Ability to share skills and knowledge with others Ability to multi tasks and work in a fast paced office settings To adept change easily in a short period Proficiency with office computers equipment and software Ability to cope with stress, conflict and crises. Proficiency in international language like English and if possible Chinese. Ability of good decision making skills. Experiences of working with board of directors and committees. Time management skills Effective leadership skill After I have reviewed the requirements of the general manager, I found out that skills could be differentiated into personal and professional skills. Professional skills are skill acquired by individual that is necessary in the specific professional and job-related fields, which include strategic leadership skills, analytical skills, change management, coaching and training skills. Personal skills are attitudes that attribute for successful interacting with superiors, colleagues, customers and suppliers, government and community organizations, which include interpersonal skills, decision-making skills, stress management and time management and communication skills. Personal skillsInterpersonal skillsInterpersonal skills are relationship-building skills that we use to interact with others in reinforcing organization goals and objectives. People with strong interpersonal skills are more likely to success in both personal and professional lives with optimistic, confident and appealing c haracteristics. Therefore, interpersonal skills are one of the critical factors that will convince success and happiness of individual with verbal and non- verbal communications. We can determine strong personality skills by situational judgment tests and 360-degree feedback from the others. Direct observation with team interactions and performance based assessment which mostly involved collaboration with team works will also help to reveal interpersonal skills. Decision making skillsDecision making is the act of choosing one to reduce more complicated decisions to simpler within available choices by using either intuition or reasoning approach. For effective decision making skills, various methods from simple rules to complex procedures has been developed varying on the nature of action and its complexity. To have right decision making skill, keeping a record of all-important decisions and its consequences will highlight for improving decision making in the future. Poor choice will lead to bad deci sion and affect the organization financial statement and improvement. For assessment methods of decision making skills, decision matrix analysis and paired comparison analysis can be used. Management questionnaire will also provide  for reviewing of necessary skills to make firmed decision. Role-play assessment method can also be used for measuring decision-making skills. Stress ManagementStress management is coping with the stress response when we face overwhelming burden and demands. Stress is a common problem we found in today’s complex environment resulted from obstacles of personal and workloads. Being prolonged to long-term stress will affect physical, emotional and mental health of human beings. To determine the efficiency on stress management, we can assess with observation method on psychological and physiological symptoms from the consequence of pressure. Regular heath check-up also can assess in determining to overcome pressure and handle stress management. Time managementTime management is effective use of our time to harmonize the conflicting demands of time for personal, professional life and in many other aspects of life. Effective time will help to stress out and to do everything in a limited time-bound. Procrastinating and laziness are resulted from ineffective use of time management and we can face failure in life. Once we can identify strategies to improve time management, we can adjust our routines and pattern of behaviors to reduce time-related stress in our lives. To assess time management control method, we can figure out with self- assessment method. Moreover, we can set up deadlines and review whether the deadline is meeting on time or not. Feedback from co-workers and friends will also give assessment to managing our time. Communication skillsCommunication skill is the key to build up strong quality relationship with others by speaking out clearly and concisely to get easy to understand that the message we sent is clearly understood by other receiver. Respect other concerns, listen attentively and determining how to support others from others viewpoint will help communication skills improved. Review from the clients will help to improve the communication process and working relationship for future opportunities. We can evaluate communication skills with presentation and participating in -group discussion. Writing test and language proficiency test will provide a clear view of communication skills. Language proficiencyThe proficiency in language becomes one of the most important personal skills in today business environment. As Myanmar has opened trade policy and most of the censorship had stopped, there are a lot of foreign companies that enter into Myanmar business market. English becomes one of the required skills. Every  GM should proficient in at least English. The favourable opportunity comes to the number of language that person could use. The proficient in English, Chinese, Japan, Korea and Thai has become popular requirement skills during 2013 and 2014 in Myanmar. Professional skillsStrategic leadership skillsLeadership is influencing people towards goals accomplishments building personality beyond their normal limitation. Leaders inspired others to follow the same path as them with making even greater things happen and motivating fellows to work willingly towards achievement of organization objectives. Lack of leadership skills in the organization will affect dramat ic impact in the organization by moving too slowly, and direction lost with losing in decision-making. To assess the leadership skills, we can verify in-group seminars; workshops and team building exercise and find out his leadership quality. Judgment on employee feedback questionnaire to subordinates and superiors will claim leadership skills as well. Strategic change managementChange management transforms organization to desired future state aligning the business with modified environment for better alternative strategies. Change management implies when there has resistance to make a change and to improve the dissatisfaction of current strategies with better opportunities. Work transparency ethnic and the ability to influence others simplify and ease when applying change management to the organization. We can assess change management skills by the negotiating abilities and change management knowledge test. The extent of quality of relationships on building of mutual trust and understanding and influencing on the followers and upward will determine change management skills. Analytical skillsAnalytical skill is the ability to visualize, articulate, and foresee the concepts with logic thinking and figuring out the solution s to both complex and uncomplicated problems. A systematic business analysis is the key to organizational planning to get sustainable competitive advantage in challenging economy and complex global business environment. Analytical skill will have great impact on reasoning of situational analysis and problem-solving skills as well. To testify the analytical skill, reporting on the future business trend with possible change and solutions will determine individual analysis skills. Examining on business case studies and frame questions will verify analytical skills. Coaching and training skillsCoaching and training is a process that enables continuous learning  and improvement with more sufficient and effective in accomplishing success in organization. These programs will help to develop valuable new skills, tools and behaviours with focusing on organizational needs. With on-going training and coaching programs, it offers unique opportunities for both trainer and trainee with development in authentic and powerful coaching and lead ership integrating performance for organizational development. Coaching and training skills can be assessed by performance improvement of trainee and feedback from trainee. Understanding of lawNowadays, being understands in law becomes one of the most important facts for the upper management level managers. As working in a export and import company the manager need to understand at least company act, investment law, foreign investment law, labour law and export and import license. Understanding of this can help in dealing with different foreign companies or local companies. Analysis on skill sets of general manager For the stress management, we need the nearest gym from home for the everyday convenience. I need quiet place for the having rest and meditation. I need strong support from the family and to friends to open my feeling and listen what I will say. For the time management, we need an alarm clock or the clock that we could see clearly when I am at office. I need to know the peek hour to avoid going out to unimportant places. I need to know the heavy traffic places to make sure extra or advance time before going out for appointments. For the language skills, I need a good tutor to monitor my improvement and to train me more proficient in language skills. Co-operation from the colleague and staffs are the most important essential things for me to improve strategic change management. I need financial support and other additional help from the upper level management. For the better understanding of accounting, I need course books and internet for the self-study and also a good tutor to asses s my improvement. Outcome According to following above procedures, my stress tension has been fallen and I can finish almost every test in timely manner. The proficiency of my Korea language skill has been improved according to frequent self-learning like watching movie and listening songs. In addition, my scope of knowledge on change management has inclined alongside with people skills and good communication. By studying LCCI, I have improved not even in financial and accounting but also with office software like Microsoft Excel. Review and control Check physical and mental test with consultant every month for the level of stress I could handle and reduce every month. Check the checklist every week for time management and consider how far I could stick with the schedules and daily or weekly plan. Keep practising with native speakers can improve my level of language. The period of time that an employee could adapt the change can prove how far I could influence and lead them for change. The increase in efficiency and output during change also proof the success of my strategy on change management. Successful management on company monthly or annually financial management can prove my increase in financial skills. If one or more of my performances have been fallen in certain week or month, I will recheck the reason and take serious plan to implement and train my weakness. We can improve our personal and professional development plan by using various assessment methods. For me I will take feedbacks and recommendation from my colleagu es, friends and family for both personal and professional skills. I will use self-appraisal and 360 appraisal methods to improve personal and professional skills. Appropriate methods for preferred learning styleEveryone has different learning styles and a person can adept more than one learning styles. Learning styles differ for personality types and the subjects they are studying. David Kolb’s Learning StyleKolb learning style is firstly published in 1984 based on work by Dewey and Lewin. Kolb learning style is currently widely accepted by academic world both by teachers and learners as fundamental concept of learning behaviour based on human nature. The training cycle also known as four distinct learning styles examine the way people generate from the concepts that guides their behaviour in new situation and improves their effectiveness. This self-description test measures learner’s strength and weakness relying on  four-stage cycle: concrete experience (feeling), reflective observation (watching), abstract conceptualization (thin king) and active experimentation (doing). Concrete learning style leads to observation and reflection. With the reflection, it then assimilated into abstract concepts and swing into active experimentation. The outcome which is resulted from combination of two preferred styles with two-by-two matrix of the four stage cycle is known as four-type definition of learning styles: Diverging (CE/RO), Assimilating (AC/RO), Converging (AC/AE), Accommodating (CE/AE). Diverging (CE/RO): These learners perform better in ideas-generation by viewing from different perspectives in gathering information and imagination to solve the problems than applying to action. They tend to work in groups with attentively listen with open-minded and assume based on the information received. Assimilating (AC/RO): These learners emphasis more on concise and logical approach on abstract concepts with preference on readings, lectures and analytical methods. They determine with clear understanding on wide-range information and organizing in logical format before practical opportunity. Converging (AC/AE): These learners are skilful at problem solving and decision making with anticipating in technical tasks and less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects. They observe new ideas, stimulate and work with practical application by finding solutions to questions and answers. Accommodating (CE/AE): These learners examine the situation with analysing on others people work and take with experiential approach attaching to new experiences and challenges. They prefer to work on team with different ways to achieve and carry out their own plans. Figure : 1 Kolb’s Learning Style Honey and Mumford’s learning cycle and learning styleHoney and Mumford’s learning style was developed based on the work of Kolb with identifying four distinct learning styles as activist, theorists, pragmatist and reflector. Honey and Mumford specify the nature of the people with their choices on own learning style as below. Activists are people who enjoy learning with the perspective of immediate experience. They have enthusiasm and inspiration of adventurous and try to do at least once. The consequences of action will be considered only after the action has been tested. They are interactive learners seeking all center activities around themselves by  involving other affairs as well as with preference on new challenging environment and bored at longer term consolidation. Theorists observe models, concept and facts with vertical – step by step logical way before engaging with the process. They analyze and draw basic assum ptions with identifying pros and cons before taking action as opposed to activists who loathe subjective judgments and lateral thinking. Pragmatist relate to the new ideas before seeking out new opportunities for practice. With interactive learning and problem based learning before practical application, they are fast and confident on their assumption with considering problems and opportunities as challenges. Reflectors learn and observe from initiative works and experience with watching from the side-lines and relate to own application. They gather information and thoroughly analyse with all possible angles and draw conclusion with others observation as well as their own. VAK/VARK ModelVAK/VARK Model is one of the popular models amongst learning style theories developed in 1987 by Neil Fleming in accomplishing of individual learning preference. In this model, identifying learner’s preference on visual learning, auditory learning, reading and writing and kinaesthetic learning differentiates four different types of learning styles. Visual learners capture and see information more with graphic display (e.g. chart s, diagrams, illustrations, hand-outs, and videos) rather than the other aspects of learning. Aural also known as auditory learners tend to receive most of their lectures and information with the hearing method (music, discussion, lectures). Impact of own learning against the achievement of strategic goalsAccording to the Kolb’s model, I am the diverging and accommodating learner. I like challenge and prefer working in-group. I like to gather information from different perspectives and generate idea from the practical situation and make decision and solve problem with experience and information I have. I am the 3 kinds of learners out of four when considering with Honey and Mumford’s learning style. I am the activist, pragmatist and reflectors. I am very enthusiasm when learning, I like challenges and I am very practical. I also learn from problems and experiences. I try not to make the same mistake twice. I also learn from the books and other people experiences but I m totally not a theorist, I hate theory. I rarely follow the theory from book. I want to create and generate new ideas and new formula for my business. I  prefer self-studying. I wish all those learning style would help me improving my perso nal and professional development plan. Reference Cohan, P.S. (15th Oct 2013). Always be ready to adapt your business change. Available: http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/229417. Last accessed 14t Sept2014. Corelli, C. (11 Jan 2009). Ten ways to help employee adapt to change.Available: http://www.cedmag.com/article-detail.cfm?id=10925388. Last accessed 14t Sept2014. no author. (no date ). Kolb’s learning style. Available: http://www.mcgill.ca/files/scsd/Kolb_Theory_of_Learning_Styles.pdf. Last accessed 14t Sept2014.

Criminal law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Criminal law - Essay Example There can be two types of manslaughter, voluntary and involuntary. Voluntary manslaughter occurs when a person kills with a malice aforethought or intention (mens rea). Involuntary manslaughter occurs when death occurs because of negligence or because of another illegal, dangerous act. To clarify, Actus Reus is the criminal act. It often goes with mens rea. There are two types of involuntary manslaughter. These are Constructive Manslaughter and Gross Negligence Manslaughter. Constructive manslaughter or Unlawful Act Manslaughter usually occurs when death results from the defendant’s unlawful act. To understand the concept of involuntary manslaughter, we could put the situation of David and Nick for consideration. David and Nick could be charged with Constructive Manslaughter. The prosecution, if the duo should be charged with Constructive Manslaughter, needs to establish the legal elements in the case. The actus reus was homicide, specifically manslaughter. The death occured b ecause of David and Nick’s unlawful act of damaging the tyres of the car Gordon drove. The mens rea for this situation would be the mere idea that they should puncture the tyres of the politician because they are unhappy with the way the politician runs the government. The mere thought that they should inflict an illegal act upon someone’s belongings, whether the intention is to kill or not, is sufficient enough to charge someone of manslaughter, because they intended to inflict harm on someone. Because the death only resulted from an act they performed indirectly on the politician, it can’t be murder. Since the killing is the result of the David and Nick’s unlawful act of slashing the tires, and they were reasonable enough (not insane) to rationalize that they needed to slash Gordon’s tyres because on the grounds that the politician was causing their problems, the act is Constructive Manslaughter. The act cannot be considered murder as they slashe d the tyres without meaning to kill the person, even if it meant the death of the driver of the car. The mens rea is quite clear and they indeed meant harm to the politician, although not necessarily his death. The death happened because of the injuries sustained from the head injuries that were incurred during the accident, which is not a direct harm but merely a consequence caused by the defendants’ actions. This phenomenon is called the Natural Consequences of the Defendant’s Act, like the R v Pagett Case in 1983 where the defendant tried to use a little girl as human shield when he was being arrested by the police. The girl died because she took the bullet. This case is similar to David and Nick’s case because Gordon died because David and Nick put him in danger because of their behavior. David and Nick could also be charged with Gross Negligence Manslaughter. This happens when the death is because of negligence or omission on the part of the defendant. Acco rding to the judge in R v Bateman (1925) 19 Cr App R 8, the negligence of the accused showed disregard for the life and safety of others as to amount to a crime. To describe the grossness of the negligence in a case, the Adomako (from R v Adomako (1994) 3 All ER 79Â  )Â  test: a) the existence of a duty of care to the deceased; b) a breach of that duty of care which; c) causes (or significantly contributes) to the death of the victim; and d) the breach should be characterised as gross negligence, and therefore a crime. Since

Individual essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Individual - Essay Example In this argument, I will use the example of Aboriginal children taken away from their â€Å"country† and how it impacted them as individuals and their culture. I will also argue that free will in choosing one’s cultural identity is under the influence of many factors. One’s cultural identity raises some interesting sets concerning the choice, for instance, how one defines his/her cultural identity and whether these definitions are imposed or chosen. Stuart hall discusses colonial experience and its traumatic nature by suggesting that expropriation of culture deforms and cripples that races that have been colonized are subjected to domination and will that is imposed through subjective conformation and compulsion to the norm (Hall 218). These people are projected unfairly as â€Å"others†, which means that cultural identity is a positioning rather than essence. Hundreds of children of Aboriginal were uprooted from their families in Australia and brought up away from their natural environment. They then became what were referred to as a stolen generation. One member of this generation who was adopted at 13 into a non-indigenous family and claims that he went through a crisis of identity. His identity was whom he was and where he was f rom, claiming that he and his Aboriginal wife were attempting to break a cycle of shattered families (Hall 220). He contended that they would make sure they stuck together and raise their children know their heritage. The other Aborigines were products of imposed interracial marriage whose children spent their lives attempting to fit since they were not white or black enough (Hall 222). This highlights the uniqueness of the situation that multi or bi-cultural live in. This situation does not make it any less valid than an identity that is fixed. Another example is the Australian cultural studies teacher and author Ien Ang who was born to a Chinese family in Indonesia and studied in Holland

Construction contracts Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Construction contracts - Research Paper Example Variation Types Variations are not restricted merely to the work specification, the cost specification or other quality aspects. Instead, variation can constitute a number of different aspects a few of which are2: an addition to work specifications; an omission to work specifications; a change of materials; changes to construction sequence; working hours change; corrections in the contract documents; corrections in the Bill of Quantities (BoQs) for descriptions and / or quantities of materials used; changes to third party work schedule and scope; changes in the timeline agreed upon in the original contract; changes required to deal with unforeseen circumstances / force majeure. In addition to describing variations as changes to the work, its scope, its cost, quality and other aspects, another potent method of defining variation is as per the party that initiates the variation. CEBE3 has provided a comprehensive method to describe variation as per the initiating party. The causes for variation as per the initiating party have been used to classify variations in an attempt to cover as many variations as possible. The major classifications of variations provided are owner related, consultant related, contractor related and other variations. The research by CEBE provides that there are approximately 53 discernible types of variations that might occur in any construction contract situation4. The various types of variations are shown in detail in the diagram provided below: Figure 1 - Causes of variation as expounded by CEBE (2006) Impacts of Variation Types on Contract Dimensions It would not be possible to discuss all the different types of variations and to analyze them as per FIDIC’s Red Book (1999) interpretations. A few... It would not be possible to discuss all the different types of variations and to analyze them as per FDIC's Red Book (1999) interpretations. A few major variations, including variations that are controversial as being variations or not, are discussed as per CABE classification presented above. A variation in project scope by the owner is one of the most common causes of variation, especially for construction projects. The owner is not on board in typical construction projects planning and design stages and this leads to changes in planning and scoping later. In such circumstances, since the originating party is the owner, the engineer is required to submit a proposal for variation to the contractor as per sub-clause 13.3 of the FIDIC Red Book (1999). Processing of the variation requested is subject to the contractor’s choosing and the owner would have to convince the contractor to comply. Additionally, the condition of the Red Book’s sub-clause that the contractor cannot stop work as variation proposals are being shuttled seems unreasonable. For example, if the owner requires an extensive change of scope that involves the current work, the contractor still has to keep working in the agreed direction even though he proposes variations simultaneously. The lack of clarification for major scope changes makes subclause 13.3 ambiguous and open to dispute between contracting parties. Another area of contention for variation may arise if the owner’s cash stream is somehow affected.

The effect of Value-Added Activity Based Costing and Economic Value Essay

The effect of Value-Added Activity Based Costing and Economic Value Added Measure and their impact on Process Improvement & Busi - Essay Example Though ‘True Cost’ in any situation is fraught with so many uncertainties, by and large the efforts made in its ascertainment paved way for efficient and alternative management practices with improved results. An introspective analysis might reveal that no Value Added Measure circumventing this basic philosophy can make a headway in process improvement or business profitability, for the simple reason that all the value added measures hinges primarily on productivity, which could be addressed properly only through revisit of the approaches to the ‘value’, which predominantly depends on reasonably accurate calculation of the cost of production. Economic Value Added Measures Economic value addition (EVA) is generally discussed with reference to the financial performance, and acts as a complementary tool in the measurement of the performance in a broader perspective, keeping in line with the expectations of the stakeholders, where the finer details of the cost i s not perceived as important as in the case of management practices of ABC. ... iency in the operations, EVA needs to be integrated with ABC in the long run, because the later is related to the factors not directly related to ‘cost’ but scores of other factors such as alternative investments, competition, government policies and international events, which nevertheless influences cost. Cost Management Cost management is the basic underlying factor for the success of a business. Hilton, Maher & Selto (2008, p. 5) states, â€Å"Cost management is important to organizations because it is more than measuring and reporting costs that have occurred. Cost management is focused on the future impacts of current or proposed decisions. Cost management is a philosophy, an attitude, and a set of techniques to create more value at lower cost†. Computation of direct (or variable cost) of material or labor is relatively simpler. But, in the modern business enterprises and in the society, the increase in the proportion of other costs over the period of time w hich hitherto have been considered as fixed and uncontrollable assumed significance, since the controllability of such costs could not be overlooked in a competitive environment. Vazakidis, Karagiannis & Tsialta (2010, p. 382) state, â€Å"The use of this method [ABC] with the cooperation of new technologies and new methods of management, can resolve all the deficiencies of Public Sector, so as citizens and companies will be better served†. Fundamentals of Activity Based Costing Hilton, Maher & Stelto (2008, p 148) state that â€Å"Studies of company practices indicate that a large number of companies, as well as some organizations in the public sector, are using ABC. Some companies have tried ABC and dropped it. Reasons for this include its implementation cost. In the case of Hewlett-Packard division that one

Budgeting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Budgeting - Essay Example Not planning earlier can bring up capacity issues; cash flow issues etc. for the organization. An estimation of costs and revenues is required to know the estimated profit. The profit is not attained in a single day. All days need to be planned to achieve those profits, daily operations are therefore need to be managed; budgeting prepares the managers for the whole day decisions, which he cannot act to on a single day basis. A clear thinking and understanding is developed. Budgeting in advance also helps determine the borrowing requirements, early relationship building with the lender, communicating earlier the borrowing needs. And reasonable budgets and forecasts to repay can build up credibility in the eyes of the lender. Once the borrowing needs are determined and committed in the pipeline, the spending timing and needs are allocated as and where required. The budgeting exercise can become hectic and set accountability for the managers. This leads to driving their focus away from the day to operations but not really. It builds up coordination and integration among the cross functional areas and within everyone in different functions of the organization. Everyone is considered accountable for his or her actions; a sense of ownership develops amongst the employees and hence a company would want its employees to be motivated enough to achieve their and company's goals. This only happens when objectives of both are aligned and employees are motivated enough to achieve the same. These overall benefits in day to day affairs. Major inputs to the master budget and usefulness of each The major inputs to the master budget are operating and the financial budget. Master budget also helps create a linkage between the two afore mentioned budgets. Each of these budgets has their own importance and none can succeed without the other. The operating budget comprises the sales budget, production budget, the direct materials budget, the direct labor budget, the factory overhead budget, the inventory budget, cost of goods sold budget, selling and administrative expense budget, and the budgeted income statement, which is the snapshot of the operations of the organization for a period. Whereas, the financial budget comprises the cash budget, the capital budget, and the budgeted balance sheet. All these inputs on a standalone basis do not have any meaning until seen within the full picture. Sales budget will determine the top line for the company and production budget support sales because it has to be determined how many units are to be produced to support that level of sales. Materials, labor and overhead determine the costs, similarly the selling and administrative expenses. The inventory budget helps in knowing how many units are carried from the earlier period and how many will fulfill the demand for the period. Financial budget takes care of the funding aspect. Why would a company want to create a master budget There are many purposes that a company can serve by developing master

Coca Cola Crisis Case in 1999 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Coca Cola Crisis Case in 1999 - Essay Example Despite the success and growth of Coca Cola, there have been different problems that have arisen over time. One of the problems that occurred was in 1999, when products sold in Europe, specifically in Belgium, led to several children getting sick as a result from drinking Coca Cola products. This paper will examine the basic background of the crisis, what went wrong with Coca Cola and how the company had to recover from the position. Specifically, there will be an analysis of the social and economic implications of the time which changed the attitudes toward the Coca Cola beverages and which led to the crisis. There will also be an evaluation of the several theories that caused the reaction from society. The paper will then recommend ways in which Coca Cola could have prevented this crisis from occurring and other actions that could have been taken to change immediate responses to avoid similar difficulties in the future. The 1999 Coca Cola crisis was preceded by a number of developments. Coca Cola began with a mixture of water and syrup or sugar that was added as a bottled product. This beverage was used specifically as a snack type of beverage aimed at children and youth. After 1892, the beverage grew from a product and into a business, which was incorporated by Asa Candler. The company quickly grew into a regional then national business in the US. By the 1920s, the beverage had expanded into various regions of the world and began to emerge as one of the most popular brands and drinks. By the 1940s, Coca Cola was offered as a beverage in conjunction with the company’s sponsorship of events such as the Olympics, which added to its continuous growth and success. The market and brand of Coca Cola, until the mid – 1980s, was incorporated into a signature drink for political and social movements. Sponsoring events and specialized advertising campaigns that were related to concepts

Alessandro Boticelli's The Birth of Venus Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Alessandro Boticelli's The Birth of Venus - Essay Example As David Alexander Scott maintains, the woman playing the role of the live nude goddess is assumed to have the properties of the image, i.e. substantially gratifying and monolithically sexual and the art of the period after the close of the medieval age has particular importance. "In the Western history of the Renaissance is the designated watershed that loosened the political power of the Christian church and allowed Eros a renewed, although circumspect, presence in art. Perhaps there is no greater icon of this age than Botticelli's painting The Birth of Venus in which the goddess, nude and unsure of herself, is blown to shore by the winds of change after an eternity of exile. The painting signaled a major breakthrough in one aspect of the medieval public policy on Eros, that of the inherent sinfulness of the naked body." (Scott, 197) Significantly, once the body as image had shed its ecclesiastical garments, the body's sensuality - the more heinous sin - was able to emerge by degre es in successive generations of renderings. Therefore, a reflective analysis of Alessandro Botticelli's painting The Birth of Venus brings out the obvious relationship between art and sexual values in the background of the society. In a reflective analysis of Botticelli's The Birth of Venus, one recognizes that the sexual values found in the society of the artist find expression in the popular art of the society and the painting brings out the obvious relationship between art and sexual values. Significantly, Venus is the goddess of love and beauty and she exemplifies physical perfection. She, lacking the quirky, individual features that distinguish one woman from another, looks like no one in particular but familiar nevertheless. "In the ancient Greek tale, Venus is both sexual and divine, flesh and spirit. However, in Botticelli's painting, she appears neither sensual nor seductive and far too chaste to be erotic. Having just been born, she exists apart from the real world of human experience. Even the landscape setting, with its pale green sea, mathematically scalloped waves and serrated shore, supports this impression of her as an abstract ideal." (Cohn, 73) Therefore, it is obvious that the sexual values f ound in the society of Botticelli had an essential influence on the painting and Botticelli has been careful in representing these particular values. It was in the background of the middle of 1480s that the famous painting by Botticelli was painted and there is apparent relationship between the painting and the sexual values of this period. In the painting, Venus is standing in the centre of the picture on a seashell floating in the water, in accordance with the classical mythology which says that she sprang from the floating waters of the sea. "The figure of Venus appears in Botticelli's painting almost like a classical statue. Botticelli has gone over the contours of the figure with a black line, causing them to stand out sharply from the surface of the picture and emphasizing their curious clarity and coldness." (Deimling, 52) The depiction of the goddess of lo

Holocaust Awareness...Contemporary Lessons Essay Example for Free

Holocaust AwarenessContemporary Lessons Essay Few events in recent history have had as dramatic an impact on history as the mass murder of Jews in concentration camps during World War II, the Holocaust. The Holocaust appears to be a well documented event (Hilberg, 1992), yet today there are those who feel it is just a myth. When he discovered the concentration camps, General and future President Dwight David Eisenhower knew that a future day would come when people would claim that the Holocaust never happened, so he took great pains to document and record the events on film so that the world would never forget. Even so, his efforts did not eliminate what he knew would happen. In spite of evidence to the contrary, today, there are many who claim that the Holocaust did not occur and that there is no evidence that it did. Yet the evidence suggests that is did happen and similar events such as the murder of more than 2 million people by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia plus mass murders ethnic intolerance in Iraq, the Sudan, Rwanda and Yugoslavia continue to take place even now. During the early hours of September 1, 1939, Adolph Hitler invaded Poland bringing about the Second World War. Historically, this war began because of Hitler’s contempt regarding the way Germans were treated at the end of the First World War and other related issues. At the time World War II began, there was a world wide depression that helped bring Hitler rose to power in Germany and President Franklin Delano Roosevelt to power in the U. S. It is generally viewed that Hitler used the issue of Jewish economic domination in Germany both to push for war and as an excuse for the economic woes of Germany. (Bartov, 2000; Friedman, 1993). Ultimately, Hitler blamed the Jews for Germany’s economic problems and to begin exterminating them in concentration camps—mass genocide. (Gigliotti and Lang, 2005) on a scale that surpassed anything that had ever happened up to that time within so short a time span. Does engraining memories of past atrocities into the public psyche eliminate future atrocities? Political campaigns demonstrate that by slinging mud candidates provide name recognition for their opponent(s). In a similar vain, perhaps remembering the events of the Holocaust and similar events throughout history (and unfortunately, still occurring around the world today) will only drive home the fact that those events exist and are continuing. Do we really want to do that? We could be reinforcing the Holocaust in the minds of individuals who might not otherwise be aware that any such thing has ever happened or ever will. We have every reason to believe that Hitler knew of the mass extermination of the millions of Jews but ironically, there is no documented evidence in writing to confirm this idea. (Irving, 1977) Most German citizens during WWII also claimed ignorance of the Jewish extermination in progress at the time. â€Å"How could such a widespread extermination and mass murder have gone unnoticed† and â€Å"Where are the documents to show that Hitler was aware of it? † Today, nearly seventy years after the beginning of WWII and Jewish extermination, the question is still asked, â€Å"Did Hitler even know about the Jewish extermination process underway? † The fact that anyone even asks this question is, perhaps, the greatest evidence that we need to teach that it is a real part of human history. While it seems irrational to assume that Hitler actually had no knowledge of what was going on, it appears to be equally true that few if any documents exist to demonstrate his knowledge of what was going on (Irving, 1977) even though there certainly appears to be a great deal of documentation about the war and the Holocaust (Wolfe, 1990). We can only wonder why these contradictory situations exist. In his 1977 book Hitlers War, one noted British historian, David Irving, outlines why he feels that stories of the mass killings of European Jews in Death Camps are merely British and American inventions, war-time propaganda perpetrated by the Allies. Irving presents several lines of argument to support his claims. For example, he points out that there is no archival evidence anywhere for the gassings, no wartime German documents that refer to the gassings of human beings and there is no clear evidence as to who gave the orders to gas people. He also claims that forensic tests of the laboratories, crematoria, gas chambers and Auschwitz fail to find any trace or significant residue of a cyanide compound. Irving dismisses eye witness accounts on the grounds that there are equal numbers of eye witness accounts of the gas chambers in Dachau even though there werent any gas chambers in Dachau and he believes that photographs documenting the Holocaust have been misrepresented. Why is it so vital that we remember the Holocaust? Arguments can be made both for and against that stance, but certainly, the history of the Holocaust should not be slighted or overlooked. The repeated efforts to try to wipe the memory of the Holocaust out of the human psyche as if it never occurred may be one of the strongest points in favor or remembering it. The intended purpose of engraining events from the Holocaust into the mind of todays generation is to allow them to learn the lessons of horror from the past and avoid them—so that we won’t repeat them. Whether this is true or not, we more or less taking comfort in the belief, right or wrong, that if people see the horrors of those events, they will make every effort to avoid them, prevent them and take precautions against repeating them whenever they see the signs in the future. Perhaps the way to combat future human atrocities is to focus on the opposite rather than to memorialize them. What lessons can we learn from the Holocaust? First, the Holocaust demonstrates how large groups and numbers of people, even on the scale of nations, can subtly be influenced into â€Å"groupthink† (i. e. , where groups of people think and behave alike because others are thinking and behaving the same way) (Janis, 1972) and manipulated by a very few influential individuals. Second, the Holocaust demonstrates that all too often, man treats his fellow man inhumanely. â€Å"How do we avoid this in the future? † I fear that there is no global answer. Whenever such a situation begins in the future, only then can we address the issue. Another lesson we can learn is that anyone can be the victim, so everyone should recognize and acknowledge it whenever it happens. When we recognize it, we must act together to stop it, and that, unfortunately, is much easier said then done. Perhaps there is no satisfactory solution to preventing future atrocities like the Holocaust. In he end, perhaps all be can do is to try to recognize such events when we see them approaching and then to do everything we can to prevent them. References Bartov, Omar. The Holocaust. Origin, Implementation, Aftermath. New York, NY: Routledge, 2000. Friedman, Saul S. Holocaust Literature. A Handbook of Critical, Historical and Literary Writing. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993.Gigliotti, Simone and Berel Lang. The Holocaust. A Reader. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. Hilberg, Raul. Perpetrators Victims Bystanders. The Jewish Catastrophe 1933-1945. New York, NY: Aaron Asher Books, 1992. Irving, David. Hitlers War. New York, NY: Viking Press, 1977. Janis, Irving L. Victims of Groupthink. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1972. Levi, Neil and Michael Rothberg. The Holocaust. Theoretical Readings. New Brunswick. NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2003. Wolfe, Robert. Holocaust. The Documentary Evidence. Washington, DC: National Archives and Records Administration, 1990.

Disney Corporation Losses EuroDisney Paris

Disney Corporation Losses EuroDisney Paris Cultural Euro Disney The word ‘management originated in America and ever since assumptions have been made about the universal acceptability and success of their business practices. There are a number of international ventures which have failed miserably due to Americans not considering the cultural aspects when entering into business in a new country. Euro Disney is a perfect example of the failure of American business processes in another country. The primary aim of this article is to explain how Euro Disney suffered the costs of cultural miscalculations. Geert Hofstedes work on culture has served as the theoretical basis of this article. His dimensions of culture have been used to explain differences in American and French cultures the problems that occurred at Euro Disney. American businesses make assumptions about the transferability of their business, management, marketing, economic and structural models of organizing which frequently fail to take into consideration cultural differences. An example of the consequences of such an approach to intercultural business practice can be found in the Disney Corporations recent European venture, now called Disneyland, Paris. Lack of cultural sensitivity and the negative infiltration strategy used by the Disney Corporation resulted in a great loss of time, money and reputation for which the corporation has only recently begun to compensate. It is the primary thesis of this article that the initial losses experienced by the Disney Corporation may have been prevented if only its representatives had known then what they know now: simply put, that organizations are not distinct, separate entities capable of functioning outside their physical, social and cultural environments. That insight, of course, calls for a different approach to international business, one which begins with the most basic aspect of human organizations, namely effective, meaningful, communicative interactions between people. As international business is becoming critically important in this world of globalization, so is the need to understand cultures, cross cultural psychology and people across nations. There is a lot of focus on cultural studies and plenty of research is done in this area. Yet, there is a lot of scope for further studies due to the gaps in the research. Today there are several models which help understand how people from different nations are expected to act; the one by Geert Hofstede has become the most influential (Hong, Zhang Stump 2007, p. 60) The cultural dimensions by Geert Hofstede have served as the specific theoretical framework for this study. Although there are many criticisms to the Hofsteds model and his dimensions yet there is no other study that compares so many other national cultures in so much detail. Simply this is the best there is. (Mead chapter 2: pg 51) With the advancements in communication and technology, the physical distance between countries is diminishing (Angur et al. , 1994; Jandt, 1995; Samovar and Potter, 1995). This physical distance is not the only thing that needs to be bridged in order to when practicing international commerce. Hofstedes dimensions reflect a nations value system. From further reading into this dissertation have tried to show how American business management tends to assume that they have the best business people that lead to them having the best business practices. While they may work very successfully in their or cultural setting, they do not work across borders. Importance of the study: Scope of the study: Why did you choose this topic? There are many studies that have been conducted in the area of cross cultural psychology, but none that have tried to connect the problems faced at Euro-Disney to Hofstedes dimensions. These dimensions have served as the specific theoretical framework for this study. Purpose, what are we trying to do These dimensions reflect a nations value system. Power distance and Uncertainty Avoidance affects how an organization is structured and how it functions. The two main problems that an organization can face are How to distribute power, and How to avoid uncertainty. Through this research, have tried to show how these two factors were taken for granted at Euro Disney. Furthermore, this research aims at studying the implications of the four dimensions on the working of MNCs and How will it help others and how can they use it for further research My work is a sincere effort to contribute to cultural literature. I hope it proves to be beneficial for further research studies. Overview of the study: Chapter 3 (Case of Euro Disney): This chapter describes all the stages of the research process in carrying out the present study. In particular this chapter gives a clear definition of the research method employed including sampling and data analysis. Chapter 2 (Literature review): This chapter will begin by outlining the existing literature on the concepts of brands, brand image, private brands and consumers perceptions toward private brands. Also in an attempt to meet the main research objective, the other areas (sub-objectives of this research study) such as  consumers attitudes preferences, brand loyalty, brand awareness toward private brands and positioning strategies of private brands have been rigorously discussed, which will provide full support to this research study. Chapter 4 (Discussion): This chapter discusses the results of the research, in particular, presenting statements made by informants with regards to themes that emerged from the transcripts. The chapter ends with a summary taking into account the exploratory nature of the research, and the importance of insight. Chapter 5 (Conclusion Recommendations): This chapter deals the conclusion of the present research study. It will be presented in light of research findings from Chapter 4. By referring to existing literature the discussion will highlight major findings in conjunction to identity development. At the end of the chapter, recommendations for further research will be given. Literature Review As Americans, the word â€Å"Euro† is believed to mean glamorous or exciting. For  Europeans it turned out to be a term they associated with business, currency, and  commerce. Renaming the park â€Å"Disneyland Paris† was a way of identifying it with one of the most romantic and exciting cities in the world (Eisner). Culture 500-700 Layers of culture 200 Cultural studies Cross cultural management 500-600 Importance of hrm in a cross cultural context International Business and importance of CCM Importance of culture in a international context 500 Theoretical background : Hofstedes diemsions of culture 1300 Case 1100 Reasons 1000 Discussion :using hotsedes dimensions explaining differences cross continents and cultures 2000 Conclusion 600-700 limitations of the study, limitations of hofsteds model American business leaders often assume that physical distance is the only gulf that needs to be bridged in international commerce. (473 pg1. last line) As a matter of fact bridging this gap is just one of the steps in international business. It is much more complicated and a number of factors need to be kept in mind. According to Adler (1986:13)in 473 it is the lack of academic interrogations by cultural scholars that has lead to ‘American parochialism Culture Culture is an umbrella word that encompasses a whole set of implicit, widely shared beliefs, traditions, values and expectations that characterize a particular group of people(Consumer behaviour in travel and tourism By Abraham Pizam, Yoel Mansfeld, p393). There are as many definitions of culture as there are people who have tried to define it. While some phrase it in terms of ‘metal programs others define it as the characteristics a person possesses. Hofstede (1994) defines culture as the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another (p. 180). While according to Kroeber and Parsons, culture is transmitted and created content and patterns of values, ideas and other symbolically meaningful systems as factor in the shaping of human behaviour and the artifacts produced through behaviour(pdf 473 page 2) According to Schein culture is ‘A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way you perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. Organizational Culture Leadership by Edgar H Schein October 1996. According to Schein Culture exists at three levels, artifacts, exposed values and basic assumptions. Pizam (1993) also believes that there are levels of culture in the society. Firms and organizations are a part of the society/system and thus culture has an impact on them. Pizam argues that organizations are culture-bound, rather than being culture-free (Pizam, 1993: p. 219)-MMp2 Today there is growing importance of culture in cross border interactions. The role of human resources is very crucial as well. Effective human resource decisions and cultural sensitivity form two pillars for the success of an international business venture. The phrase ‘Cross cultural management was first coined by †¦in the year†¦. There are examples of companies who failed due to HRs ignorance and cultural miscalculations. Theoretical background:- Hofstedes Dimensions Cultural dimensions by halls,trompenars, hofstedes, globe study. Although there are many criticisms to the Hofsteds model and his dimensions yet there is no other study that compares so many other national cultures in so much detail . Simply this is the best there is. ( Mead chapter 2: pg 51) As international business is becoming critically important in this world of globalization, so is the need to understand cultures and people across nations. There is a lot of focus on cultural studies and plenty of research is done in this area still there is a lot of scope for further studies due to gaps in research. Today there are several models which help understand how people from different nations are expected to act, the one by Geert Hofstede has become the most influential (Hong, Zhang Stump 2007, p. 60) Hofstedes Dimensions of national culture- Power Distance Index (PDI): Large versus Small power distance The basis for this dimension is the fact that inequality exists at all levels and areas of the society. Inequality exists in areas such as wealth, social status, power and prestige. The word ‘power distance is taken from the work of Mulder (Reference hofstede p71). According to Mulders Power Distance Reduction theory, subordinated try to reduce the gap in power between them and their superiors. On the other hand the superiors try to maintain or increase the power distance. The PDI norm deals with the desirability or undesirability of dependence versus independence in society (Hofstede p. 93). Power distance is described as the degree to which there is unequal distribution of power in a society. This is accepted by the members of a society, organizations and nations which are less or more powerful. Behaviour of members of such institution is affected by the degree of power they posses. A high power distance index is characterized by hierarchical orders, close supervision, autocratic decision making and unequal distribution of power. Everybody has a place in the system which needs no clarification or justification. According to Hofstedes dimensions, Malaysia has the highest score on power distance (104) thus implying that the management would use a top-down information flow and there would be autocratic and paternalistic decision making. In a low PDI society, subordinates with the senior management together make decisions and have strong work ethics. It is characterised by equal distribution of power. Sweden is low on PDI (31)Individualism versus Collectivism (IDV) It deals with how members of a society view themselves compared to the rest of the society and is measured from completely collective (0) to completely individualistic (100). Individualism stands for a preference for a loosely knit social framework in society wherein individuals are supposed to take care of themselves and their immediate families only. Collectivism, on the other hand, stands for a preference for a tightly knit social framework in which individuals can expect their relatives, clan, or other in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty (it will be clear that the word collectivism is not used here to describe any particular political system). Hofstedes own definition is:Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between the individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which people from birth onward are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which throughout peoples lifetimes continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. † Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 76 The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the degree of interdependence a society maintains among individuals: an extremely fundamental issue, regarding all societies in the world. It relates to peoples self-concept: T or we Thus, typical traits of countries scoring high on individualism is a frequent use of the word I (in comparison to emitting it, like in Spanish), tendency to live in small households and the expectation on people to have personal opinions on most matters. The three highest scoring countries in the original study were USA (91), Australia (90) and Great Britain (89) whereas the lowest scoring countries were Guatemala (6), Ecuador (8) and Panama (11) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, pp. 78-79). Masculinity (MAS) versus Femininity Masculinity stands for a preference in society for achievement, heroism,assertiveness, and material success. Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a preference for relationships, modesty, caring for the weak, and the quality of life. Hofstedes definition goes as follows; â€Å"A society is called masculine when emotional gender roles are clearly distinct: men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success, whereas women are supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. A society is called feminine when emotional gender roles overlap; both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. †Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 120 Masculinity versus Femininity (MAS) is somewhat unluckily named, since the name tends to give people associations with highly political matters although the dimension doesnt deal with those. A better name might have been Gender role stability, since this is what the dimension actually deals with. This fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the way in which a society allocates social (as opposed to biological) roles to the sexes. Some societies strive for maximum social differentiation between the sexes. The norm is then that men are given the more outgoing, assertive roles and women the caring, nurturing roles. As in all societies most institutions are populated by men. Such maximum-social-differentiation societies will permeate their institutions with an assertive mentality. Such societies become performance societies evident even from the values of their women. these societies are referred to as masculine. (In the English language, male and female are used for the biological distinctions between the sexes; masculine and feminine for the social distinction. A man can be feminine, but he cannot be female. ) Other societies strive for minimal social differentiation between the sexes. This means that some women can take assertive roles if they want to but especially that some men can take relationship-oriented, modest, caring roles if they want to. Even in these societies, most institutions are populated by men (maybe slightly less than in masculine societies). The minimum-social-differentiation societies in comparison with their opposite, the maximum-social-differentiation societies, will permeate their institutions with a caring, quality-of-life orientated mentality. Such societies become welfare societies in which caring for all members, even the weakest, is an important goat for men as well as women. such societies are referred to as feminine. Masculine and feminine are relative qualifications: they express the relative frequency of values which in principle are present in both types of societies. The fact that even modern societies can be differentiated on the basis of the way they allocate their social sex role is not surprising in the light of anthropological research on non-literate, traditional societies in which the social sex role allocation is always one of the essential variables. Like the Individualism-Collectivism dimension, the Masculinity-Femininity dimension relates to peoples self-concept: who am l and what is my task in life? MAS is the only dimension where there are systematic differences between the biological genders in how they answer. The difference is correlated with two factors; age (older people tend to score more on the feminine side) and how masculine the country is overall (in feminine cultures both genders tend to score equally, whereas men score much higher than women in masculine cultures) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005). Masculinity is represented by the high end of the scale. The three highest scoring countries in the original study were Japan (95), Austria (79) and Venezuela (73) whereas the lowest scoring countries were Sweden (5), Norway (8) and the Netherlands (14). (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, pp. 120-121). Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) Uncertainty Avoidance is the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. This feeling leads them to beliefs promising certainty and to maintaining institutions protecting conformity. Strong Uncertainty Avoidance societies maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour and are intolerant towards deviant persons and ideas. They try to minimize the possibility of unstructured situations (situations that are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual) by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; there can only be one Truth and we have it. People in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. Weak Uncertainty Avoidance societies maintain a more relaxed atmosphere in which practice counts more than principles and deviance is more easily tolerated. They are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to flow side by side. People within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative, and not expected by their environment to express emotions The UAI deals with how people within a given culture handle anxiety. It needs to be stressed that UAI is not the same as risk avoidance risk is focused on something specific whereas UAI deals with the unspecific general. The definition of UAI is â€Å"the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations† (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 167). The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is how a society reacts on the fact that time only runs one way and that the future is unknown: whether it tries to control the future or to let it happen. Like Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance has consequences for the way people build their institutions and organizations. Typical of countries with high UAI is a need for written and unwritten rules. The three highest scoring countries in the original study were Greece (112), Portugal (104) and Guatemala (101) whereas the lowest scoring countries were Singapore (8), Jamaica (13) and Denmark (23) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005). Long-Term Orientation (LTO) versus Short-Term Orientation This fifth dimension was found in a study among students in 23 countries around the world, using a questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars. It can be said to deal with Virtue regardless of Truth. Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting ones face. Both the positively and the negatively rated values of this dimension are found in the teachings of Confucius, the most influential Chinese philosopher who lived around 500 B. C. ; however, the dimension also applies to countries without a Confucian heritage. The dimension was defined by Hofstede as:â€Å" Long-term orientation (LTO) stands for the fostering of virtues oriented toward future rewards in particular, perseverance and thrift. Its opposite pole, short-term orientation, stands for, the fostering of virtues related to the past and present in particular, respect for tradition, preservation of â€Å"face†, and fulfilling social obligations. † Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 210 Cultures that score high on LTO tend to have so called Confucian values and not surprisingly the three highest scoring countries in the Bond-Hofstede study were China (118), Hong Kong (96) and Taiwan (87). The lowest scoring countries were Pakistan (0), Nigeria (16) and the Philippines (19) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005). The case of Euro Disney Its first of Walt Disneys theme park, Disneyland, opened in Anaheim, California, in 1955. The Anaheim Park was an instantaneous success. The success story repeated itself with the opening of the theme park in Florida in 1970s, and with Tokyo Disneyland in Japan in 1983. Japans success made the corporates believe that they knew everything about opening a theme park in another country and making it a success. So, in 1992, they turned to Paris, the self-proclaimed capital of European high culture and style. Paris was chosen out of 200 locations around the world because of its demographics and the subsidies Walt Disney was offered by the French government. The Greater Paris area  was a high-density population zone (over 10 million) with people who had a relatively high level of disposable income. It also has the ability to attract substantial number of tourists. There was sufficient land available to meet the demand of the park and necessary supply of water and electricity was economical. The French government was very enthusiastic about getting Disney to Paris because they believed that the project would create 30,000 French jobs. They also gave the company more than $1 billion in various incentives. The Walt Disney had tasted nothing but success until 1992. From its very inception, Euro-Disney faced a number of problems. First was the allegation that Euro-Disney was an assault on the French culture. The cause: lack of cultural sensitivity. People looked at it as a symbol of American clichà ©s. The French framers even blocked the entrance with their tractors on the day of its opening. It was evident that the human resource department had done everything possible to ignore the aspects of cultural awareness and had misunderstood the French laws. They overlooked the traditions and habits of the French people when strategizing the park and how it would operate. The ethnocentric recruiting practice was one of their biggest mistakes. If a company follows ethnocentric hiring practices, the employees of a multinational company who are from the home country will be given preference. Following this, Euro-Disney filled all important positions with employees from the home America. The chairman of Euro Disney was an American who was said to have strong ties with France. What they did not realize was the fact that because he had strong ties with France did not mean he thought like the French. Because of this, they went on to implement Euro-Disney without much consideration to local culture. They filed to credit the local employees for their contribution to the initial planning process. Recognizing performance is the basis for building an affinity to the workplace and a sense of belonging. When operating in a culturally different environment, it is important that a company ‘act globally, but think locally. This was Disneys biggest mistake. They refused to acknowledge the fact that Europe and USA were both ‘Western cultures, but starkly different in their cultures. The theme parks in America did not serve any alcohol, but for the French, serving a glass of wine with lunch was a given. While the French culture is feminine in nature, the American is Masculine. Disney assumed that Europeans would not take breakfast and so they downsized the operation, but surprisingly Europeans did want breakfast. More surprising was the fact that did not want the typical French breakfast. They wanted bacon and eggs! Another big problem was the while Disney was successful in hitting the planned 9 million visitors a year mark, the visitors didnt stay for as long as expected. Most stayed for a day or two as opposed to the four to five days that Disney had hoped for. Europeans thought of theme parks as a full day excursion and not as a weekend destination. The company had spent billions of dollars building the luxurious hotels but because people opted for day excursions, the occupancy levels at the hotels were always low. Because of this, Euro-Disneyland had cumulative losses of $2 billion at the end of 1994[1]. Almost everything that Walt Disney had projected for Euro-Disney was the complete opposite of the reality in Europe. A puzzle of errors: miscalculating everything! Here are the factors that led to the downfall of Euro-Disney from the very start. I have discussed these in detail as we move further into the dissertation. Still beset by high costs and low attendances, Euro Disney will find it hard to hit its target of breakeven by the end of September 1996. Costs in the year were reduced by FF 500m by introducing more flexible labour agreements (more part-timers, increased job sharing and the use of more students in the peak season) as well as outsourcing contracts in the hotel operation. But the company admits that the lions share of cost reductions has now been realized. Now it hopes attendances are rising. . . Getting people to spend more once they are at the park might be more difficult. Euro Disney is pinning its hopes on economic recovery in Europe. Itll have to start paying interest, management fees and royalties again in five years time. Management will not say whether itll be able to cope then. 1 â€Å"Euro Disney,† Financial Times Lex column, 30 October 1996(14ED) 1. Miscalculation of drinking habits. Misunderstanding French drinking habits was a serious problem faced by Euro Disney. The management decided to continue with their policy of not serving alcohol in their theme park. Though it worked well in other places but the same did not hold true for Euro Disney. It rather proved to be disastrous because a French meal is incomplete without a wine. Wine is an essential part of the French Culture and is famous all over the world. This miscalculation became a cause of astonishment and consequently the company had to change its policy and serve alcohol. 2. Misunderstanding of breakfast and food norms. Disneys fault of ignoring the cultural differences in food made them commit another blunder. Disney believed that like Americans French would also prefer snacks and hence they downsized their restaurants. This proved to be a wrong decision because French preferred to sit down and eat complete meals rather than carrying away snacks in their hand like Americans. In fact, the data shows that they were trying to serve 2,500 breakfasts in a 350-seat restaurant at some of the hotels. Further, guests wanted bacon and eggs rather than just coffee and croissants (Burgoyne, 1995). This difference between the companys thinking and the actual French culture lead to long lines in front of the restaurants and on top of it when French were denied wine it complicated the matter even further and on the whole French did not have a pleasant â€Å"Disney experience†. 3. Misunderstanding of vacation habits. The Walt Disneys thinking of Americanize European habits put them into another trouble. The company miscalculated the vacation time because the Europeans preferred few longer holidays in comparison with the Americans who took several short breaks. So the companys theory of Americanizing brought loss to them. 4. Miscalculation of per-capita spending. Insufficient market research lead to miscalculation of the per capita spending by the visitors at the park. While the Americans and Japanese who never left the park empty handed, the Europeans did. The European visitors wanted to spend more time on the rides rather than shopping for food and souvenirs which resulted in lower expected revenue. As a matter of Fact spending was about 12% less than predicted. [ ] 5. Miscalculation of transportation preferences. There was a big miscalculation in the transport preferences which was again due to the non- understanding of the differences in the American and the European culture. While availability of boats, trams and trains proved to be beneficial  to carry visitors in America from their hotels to the park but with the Europeans this was not the case. Most of the Europeans preferred to walk . Also, as per the calculation it was assumed that most of the Europeans would travel by their own vehicles and hence a lot of parking space was allotted for the cars. Whereas most of the Europeans came by buses and bicycles and the facilities for the bus drivers to park their buses and the rest came out be inadequate and as a result the company was forced to reduce the space for parking lots and provide more space for the buses and the bicycles. 6. Misunderstanding of French labor laws. 7. Violation of French labor law. 8. Miscalculation of risk factor 9. Incorrect global staffing policies and hr orientations :Ethnocentric and polycentric 2. Misunderstanding French traditions and habits: celebrating Halloween instead of French festivals. 3. Nationalistic sentiments of  French people: Change in name from Euro Disney to Disneyland Paris 4. Staffing and training problems 5. Rigid Disney dress code 6. Operational errors 7. Labour costs 8. Labour disputes 9. communication problems 10. cultural operational issues Power distance  · Incorrect global staffing policies and hr orientations: Ethnocentric and polycentric The French were confused when Disney appointed mostly American-born managers into the front-line supervisory positions at Euro Disneyland many of whom were not fluent in the French language. Individualism  · Rigid Disney dress code  · threatening highly individualistic French cultural traditions Individualism is the cultural dimension that measures to what extent people to look after themselves and their immediate family members only Americas individualism score of 91 is the highest in the world. Frances score of 71 is also high, 65% more than t Disney Corporation Losses EuroDisney Paris Disney Corporation Losses EuroDisney Paris Cultural Euro Disney The word ‘management originated in America and ever since assumptions have been made about the universal acceptability and success of their business practices. There are a number of international ventures which have failed miserably due to Americans not considering the cultural aspects when entering into business in a new country. Euro Disney is a perfect example of the failure of American business processes in another country. The primary aim of this article is to explain how Euro Disney suffered the costs of cultural miscalculations. Geert Hofstedes work on culture has served as the theoretical basis of this article. His dimensions of culture have been used to explain differences in American and French cultures the problems that occurred at Euro Disney. American businesses make assumptions about the transferability of their business, management, marketing, economic and structural models of organizing which frequently fail to take into consideration cultural differences. An example of the consequences of such an approach to intercultural business practice can be found in the Disney Corporations recent European venture, now called Disneyland, Paris. Lack of cultural sensitivity and the negative infiltration strategy used by the Disney Corporation resulted in a great loss of time, money and reputation for which the corporation has only recently begun to compensate. It is the primary thesis of this article that the initial losses experienced by the Disney Corporation may have been prevented if only its representatives had known then what they know now: simply put, that organizations are not distinct, separate entities capable of functioning outside their physical, social and cultural environments. That insight, of course, calls for a different approach to international business, one which begins with the most basic aspect of human organizations, namely effective, meaningful, communicative interactions between people. As international business is becoming critically important in this world of globalization, so is the need to understand cultures, cross cultural psychology and people across nations. There is a lot of focus on cultural studies and plenty of research is done in this area. Yet, there is a lot of scope for further studies due to the gaps in the research. Today there are several models which help understand how people from different nations are expected to act; the one by Geert Hofstede has become the most influential (Hong, Zhang Stump 2007, p. 60) The cultural dimensions by Geert Hofstede have served as the specific theoretical framework for this study. Although there are many criticisms to the Hofsteds model and his dimensions yet there is no other study that compares so many other national cultures in so much detail. Simply this is the best there is. (Mead chapter 2: pg 51) With the advancements in communication and technology, the physical distance between countries is diminishing (Angur et al. , 1994; Jandt, 1995; Samovar and Potter, 1995). This physical distance is not the only thing that needs to be bridged in order to when practicing international commerce. Hofstedes dimensions reflect a nations value system. From further reading into this dissertation have tried to show how American business management tends to assume that they have the best business people that lead to them having the best business practices. While they may work very successfully in their or cultural setting, they do not work across borders. Importance of the study: Scope of the study: Why did you choose this topic? There are many studies that have been conducted in the area of cross cultural psychology, but none that have tried to connect the problems faced at Euro-Disney to Hofstedes dimensions. These dimensions have served as the specific theoretical framework for this study. Purpose, what are we trying to do These dimensions reflect a nations value system. Power distance and Uncertainty Avoidance affects how an organization is structured and how it functions. The two main problems that an organization can face are How to distribute power, and How to avoid uncertainty. Through this research, have tried to show how these two factors were taken for granted at Euro Disney. Furthermore, this research aims at studying the implications of the four dimensions on the working of MNCs and How will it help others and how can they use it for further research My work is a sincere effort to contribute to cultural literature. I hope it proves to be beneficial for further research studies. Overview of the study: Chapter 3 (Case of Euro Disney): This chapter describes all the stages of the research process in carrying out the present study. In particular this chapter gives a clear definition of the research method employed including sampling and data analysis. Chapter 2 (Literature review): This chapter will begin by outlining the existing literature on the concepts of brands, brand image, private brands and consumers perceptions toward private brands. Also in an attempt to meet the main research objective, the other areas (sub-objectives of this research study) such as  consumers attitudes preferences, brand loyalty, brand awareness toward private brands and positioning strategies of private brands have been rigorously discussed, which will provide full support to this research study. Chapter 4 (Discussion): This chapter discusses the results of the research, in particular, presenting statements made by informants with regards to themes that emerged from the transcripts. The chapter ends with a summary taking into account the exploratory nature of the research, and the importance of insight. Chapter 5 (Conclusion Recommendations): This chapter deals the conclusion of the present research study. It will be presented in light of research findings from Chapter 4. By referring to existing literature the discussion will highlight major findings in conjunction to identity development. At the end of the chapter, recommendations for further research will be given. Literature Review As Americans, the word â€Å"Euro† is believed to mean glamorous or exciting. For  Europeans it turned out to be a term they associated with business, currency, and  commerce. Renaming the park â€Å"Disneyland Paris† was a way of identifying it with one of the most romantic and exciting cities in the world (Eisner). Culture 500-700 Layers of culture 200 Cultural studies Cross cultural management 500-600 Importance of hrm in a cross cultural context International Business and importance of CCM Importance of culture in a international context 500 Theoretical background : Hofstedes diemsions of culture 1300 Case 1100 Reasons 1000 Discussion :using hotsedes dimensions explaining differences cross continents and cultures 2000 Conclusion 600-700 limitations of the study, limitations of hofsteds model American business leaders often assume that physical distance is the only gulf that needs to be bridged in international commerce. (473 pg1. last line) As a matter of fact bridging this gap is just one of the steps in international business. It is much more complicated and a number of factors need to be kept in mind. According to Adler (1986:13)in 473 it is the lack of academic interrogations by cultural scholars that has lead to ‘American parochialism Culture Culture is an umbrella word that encompasses a whole set of implicit, widely shared beliefs, traditions, values and expectations that characterize a particular group of people(Consumer behaviour in travel and tourism By Abraham Pizam, Yoel Mansfeld, p393). There are as many definitions of culture as there are people who have tried to define it. While some phrase it in terms of ‘metal programs others define it as the characteristics a person possesses. Hofstede (1994) defines culture as the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another (p. 180). While according to Kroeber and Parsons, culture is transmitted and created content and patterns of values, ideas and other symbolically meaningful systems as factor in the shaping of human behaviour and the artifacts produced through behaviour(pdf 473 page 2) According to Schein culture is ‘A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way you perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. Organizational Culture Leadership by Edgar H Schein October 1996. According to Schein Culture exists at three levels, artifacts, exposed values and basic assumptions. Pizam (1993) also believes that there are levels of culture in the society. Firms and organizations are a part of the society/system and thus culture has an impact on them. Pizam argues that organizations are culture-bound, rather than being culture-free (Pizam, 1993: p. 219)-MMp2 Today there is growing importance of culture in cross border interactions. The role of human resources is very crucial as well. Effective human resource decisions and cultural sensitivity form two pillars for the success of an international business venture. The phrase ‘Cross cultural management was first coined by †¦in the year†¦. There are examples of companies who failed due to HRs ignorance and cultural miscalculations. Theoretical background:- Hofstedes Dimensions Cultural dimensions by halls,trompenars, hofstedes, globe study. Although there are many criticisms to the Hofsteds model and his dimensions yet there is no other study that compares so many other national cultures in so much detail . Simply this is the best there is. ( Mead chapter 2: pg 51) As international business is becoming critically important in this world of globalization, so is the need to understand cultures and people across nations. There is a lot of focus on cultural studies and plenty of research is done in this area still there is a lot of scope for further studies due to gaps in research. Today there are several models which help understand how people from different nations are expected to act, the one by Geert Hofstede has become the most influential (Hong, Zhang Stump 2007, p. 60) Hofstedes Dimensions of national culture- Power Distance Index (PDI): Large versus Small power distance The basis for this dimension is the fact that inequality exists at all levels and areas of the society. Inequality exists in areas such as wealth, social status, power and prestige. The word ‘power distance is taken from the work of Mulder (Reference hofstede p71). According to Mulders Power Distance Reduction theory, subordinated try to reduce the gap in power between them and their superiors. On the other hand the superiors try to maintain or increase the power distance. The PDI norm deals with the desirability or undesirability of dependence versus independence in society (Hofstede p. 93). Power distance is described as the degree to which there is unequal distribution of power in a society. This is accepted by the members of a society, organizations and nations which are less or more powerful. Behaviour of members of such institution is affected by the degree of power they posses. A high power distance index is characterized by hierarchical orders, close supervision, autocratic decision making and unequal distribution of power. Everybody has a place in the system which needs no clarification or justification. According to Hofstedes dimensions, Malaysia has the highest score on power distance (104) thus implying that the management would use a top-down information flow and there would be autocratic and paternalistic decision making. In a low PDI society, subordinates with the senior management together make decisions and have strong work ethics. It is characterised by equal distribution of power. Sweden is low on PDI (31)Individualism versus Collectivism (IDV) It deals with how members of a society view themselves compared to the rest of the society and is measured from completely collective (0) to completely individualistic (100). Individualism stands for a preference for a loosely knit social framework in society wherein individuals are supposed to take care of themselves and their immediate families only. Collectivism, on the other hand, stands for a preference for a tightly knit social framework in which individuals can expect their relatives, clan, or other in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty (it will be clear that the word collectivism is not used here to describe any particular political system). Hofstedes own definition is:Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between the individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which people from birth onward are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which throughout peoples lifetimes continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. † Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 76 The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the degree of interdependence a society maintains among individuals: an extremely fundamental issue, regarding all societies in the world. It relates to peoples self-concept: T or we Thus, typical traits of countries scoring high on individualism is a frequent use of the word I (in comparison to emitting it, like in Spanish), tendency to live in small households and the expectation on people to have personal opinions on most matters. The three highest scoring countries in the original study were USA (91), Australia (90) and Great Britain (89) whereas the lowest scoring countries were Guatemala (6), Ecuador (8) and Panama (11) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, pp. 78-79). Masculinity (MAS) versus Femininity Masculinity stands for a preference in society for achievement, heroism,assertiveness, and material success. Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a preference for relationships, modesty, caring for the weak, and the quality of life. Hofstedes definition goes as follows; â€Å"A society is called masculine when emotional gender roles are clearly distinct: men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success, whereas women are supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. A society is called feminine when emotional gender roles overlap; both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. †Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 120 Masculinity versus Femininity (MAS) is somewhat unluckily named, since the name tends to give people associations with highly political matters although the dimension doesnt deal with those. A better name might have been Gender role stability, since this is what the dimension actually deals with. This fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the way in which a society allocates social (as opposed to biological) roles to the sexes. Some societies strive for maximum social differentiation between the sexes. The norm is then that men are given the more outgoing, assertive roles and women the caring, nurturing roles. As in all societies most institutions are populated by men. Such maximum-social-differentiation societies will permeate their institutions with an assertive mentality. Such societies become performance societies evident even from the values of their women. these societies are referred to as masculine. (In the English language, male and female are used for the biological distinctions between the sexes; masculine and feminine for the social distinction. A man can be feminine, but he cannot be female. ) Other societies strive for minimal social differentiation between the sexes. This means that some women can take assertive roles if they want to but especially that some men can take relationship-oriented, modest, caring roles if they want to. Even in these societies, most institutions are populated by men (maybe slightly less than in masculine societies). The minimum-social-differentiation societies in comparison with their opposite, the maximum-social-differentiation societies, will permeate their institutions with a caring, quality-of-life orientated mentality. Such societies become welfare societies in which caring for all members, even the weakest, is an important goat for men as well as women. such societies are referred to as feminine. Masculine and feminine are relative qualifications: they express the relative frequency of values which in principle are present in both types of societies. The fact that even modern societies can be differentiated on the basis of the way they allocate their social sex role is not surprising in the light of anthropological research on non-literate, traditional societies in which the social sex role allocation is always one of the essential variables. Like the Individualism-Collectivism dimension, the Masculinity-Femininity dimension relates to peoples self-concept: who am l and what is my task in life? MAS is the only dimension where there are systematic differences between the biological genders in how they answer. The difference is correlated with two factors; age (older people tend to score more on the feminine side) and how masculine the country is overall (in feminine cultures both genders tend to score equally, whereas men score much higher than women in masculine cultures) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005). Masculinity is represented by the high end of the scale. The three highest scoring countries in the original study were Japan (95), Austria (79) and Venezuela (73) whereas the lowest scoring countries were Sweden (5), Norway (8) and the Netherlands (14). (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, pp. 120-121). Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) Uncertainty Avoidance is the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. This feeling leads them to beliefs promising certainty and to maintaining institutions protecting conformity. Strong Uncertainty Avoidance societies maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour and are intolerant towards deviant persons and ideas. They try to minimize the possibility of unstructured situations (situations that are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual) by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; there can only be one Truth and we have it. People in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. Weak Uncertainty Avoidance societies maintain a more relaxed atmosphere in which practice counts more than principles and deviance is more easily tolerated. They are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to flow side by side. People within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative, and not expected by their environment to express emotions The UAI deals with how people within a given culture handle anxiety. It needs to be stressed that UAI is not the same as risk avoidance risk is focused on something specific whereas UAI deals with the unspecific general. The definition of UAI is â€Å"the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations† (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 167). The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is how a society reacts on the fact that time only runs one way and that the future is unknown: whether it tries to control the future or to let it happen. Like Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance has consequences for the way people build their institutions and organizations. Typical of countries with high UAI is a need for written and unwritten rules. The three highest scoring countries in the original study were Greece (112), Portugal (104) and Guatemala (101) whereas the lowest scoring countries were Singapore (8), Jamaica (13) and Denmark (23) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005). Long-Term Orientation (LTO) versus Short-Term Orientation This fifth dimension was found in a study among students in 23 countries around the world, using a questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars. It can be said to deal with Virtue regardless of Truth. Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting ones face. Both the positively and the negatively rated values of this dimension are found in the teachings of Confucius, the most influential Chinese philosopher who lived around 500 B. C. ; however, the dimension also applies to countries without a Confucian heritage. The dimension was defined by Hofstede as:â€Å" Long-term orientation (LTO) stands for the fostering of virtues oriented toward future rewards in particular, perseverance and thrift. Its opposite pole, short-term orientation, stands for, the fostering of virtues related to the past and present in particular, respect for tradition, preservation of â€Å"face†, and fulfilling social obligations. † Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 210 Cultures that score high on LTO tend to have so called Confucian values and not surprisingly the three highest scoring countries in the Bond-Hofstede study were China (118), Hong Kong (96) and Taiwan (87). The lowest scoring countries were Pakistan (0), Nigeria (16) and the Philippines (19) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005). The case of Euro Disney Its first of Walt Disneys theme park, Disneyland, opened in Anaheim, California, in 1955. The Anaheim Park was an instantaneous success. The success story repeated itself with the opening of the theme park in Florida in 1970s, and with Tokyo Disneyland in Japan in 1983. Japans success made the corporates believe that they knew everything about opening a theme park in another country and making it a success. So, in 1992, they turned to Paris, the self-proclaimed capital of European high culture and style. Paris was chosen out of 200 locations around the world because of its demographics and the subsidies Walt Disney was offered by the French government. The Greater Paris area  was a high-density population zone (over 10 million) with people who had a relatively high level of disposable income. It also has the ability to attract substantial number of tourists. There was sufficient land available to meet the demand of the park and necessary supply of water and electricity was economical. The French government was very enthusiastic about getting Disney to Paris because they believed that the project would create 30,000 French jobs. They also gave the company more than $1 billion in various incentives. The Walt Disney had tasted nothing but success until 1992. From its very inception, Euro-Disney faced a number of problems. First was the allegation that Euro-Disney was an assault on the French culture. The cause: lack of cultural sensitivity. People looked at it as a symbol of American clichà ©s. The French framers even blocked the entrance with their tractors on the day of its opening. It was evident that the human resource department had done everything possible to ignore the aspects of cultural awareness and had misunderstood the French laws. They overlooked the traditions and habits of the French people when strategizing the park and how it would operate. The ethnocentric recruiting practice was one of their biggest mistakes. If a company follows ethnocentric hiring practices, the employees of a multinational company who are from the home country will be given preference. Following this, Euro-Disney filled all important positions with employees from the home America. The chairman of Euro Disney was an American who was said to have strong ties with France. What they did not realize was the fact that because he had strong ties with France did not mean he thought like the French. Because of this, they went on to implement Euro-Disney without much consideration to local culture. They filed to credit the local employees for their contribution to the initial planning process. Recognizing performance is the basis for building an affinity to the workplace and a sense of belonging. When operating in a culturally different environment, it is important that a company ‘act globally, but think locally. This was Disneys biggest mistake. They refused to acknowledge the fact that Europe and USA were both ‘Western cultures, but starkly different in their cultures. The theme parks in America did not serve any alcohol, but for the French, serving a glass of wine with lunch was a given. While the French culture is feminine in nature, the American is Masculine. Disney assumed that Europeans would not take breakfast and so they downsized the operation, but surprisingly Europeans did want breakfast. More surprising was the fact that did not want the typical French breakfast. They wanted bacon and eggs! Another big problem was the while Disney was successful in hitting the planned 9 million visitors a year mark, the visitors didnt stay for as long as expected. Most stayed for a day or two as opposed to the four to five days that Disney had hoped for. Europeans thought of theme parks as a full day excursion and not as a weekend destination. The company had spent billions of dollars building the luxurious hotels but because people opted for day excursions, the occupancy levels at the hotels were always low. Because of this, Euro-Disneyland had cumulative losses of $2 billion at the end of 1994[1]. Almost everything that Walt Disney had projected for Euro-Disney was the complete opposite of the reality in Europe. A puzzle of errors: miscalculating everything! Here are the factors that led to the downfall of Euro-Disney from the very start. I have discussed these in detail as we move further into the dissertation. Still beset by high costs and low attendances, Euro Disney will find it hard to hit its target of breakeven by the end of September 1996. Costs in the year were reduced by FF 500m by introducing more flexible labour agreements (more part-timers, increased job sharing and the use of more students in the peak season) as well as outsourcing contracts in the hotel operation. But the company admits that the lions share of cost reductions has now been realized. Now it hopes attendances are rising. . . Getting people to spend more once they are at the park might be more difficult. Euro Disney is pinning its hopes on economic recovery in Europe. Itll have to start paying interest, management fees and royalties again in five years time. Management will not say whether itll be able to cope then. 1 â€Å"Euro Disney,† Financial Times Lex column, 30 October 1996(14ED) 1. Miscalculation of drinking habits. Misunderstanding French drinking habits was a serious problem faced by Euro Disney. The management decided to continue with their policy of not serving alcohol in their theme park. Though it worked well in other places but the same did not hold true for Euro Disney. It rather proved to be disastrous because a French meal is incomplete without a wine. Wine is an essential part of the French Culture and is famous all over the world. This miscalculation became a cause of astonishment and consequently the company had to change its policy and serve alcohol. 2. Misunderstanding of breakfast and food norms. Disneys fault of ignoring the cultural differences in food made them commit another blunder. Disney believed that like Americans French would also prefer snacks and hence they downsized their restaurants. This proved to be a wrong decision because French preferred to sit down and eat complete meals rather than carrying away snacks in their hand like Americans. In fact, the data shows that they were trying to serve 2,500 breakfasts in a 350-seat restaurant at some of the hotels. Further, guests wanted bacon and eggs rather than just coffee and croissants (Burgoyne, 1995). This difference between the companys thinking and the actual French culture lead to long lines in front of the restaurants and on top of it when French were denied wine it complicated the matter even further and on the whole French did not have a pleasant â€Å"Disney experience†. 3. Misunderstanding of vacation habits. The Walt Disneys thinking of Americanize European habits put them into another trouble. The company miscalculated the vacation time because the Europeans preferred few longer holidays in comparison with the Americans who took several short breaks. So the companys theory of Americanizing brought loss to them. 4. Miscalculation of per-capita spending. Insufficient market research lead to miscalculation of the per capita spending by the visitors at the park. While the Americans and Japanese who never left the park empty handed, the Europeans did. The European visitors wanted to spend more time on the rides rather than shopping for food and souvenirs which resulted in lower expected revenue. As a matter of Fact spending was about 12% less than predicted. [ ] 5. Miscalculation of transportation preferences. There was a big miscalculation in the transport preferences which was again due to the non- understanding of the differences in the American and the European culture. While availability of boats, trams and trains proved to be beneficial  to carry visitors in America from their hotels to the park but with the Europeans this was not the case. Most of the Europeans preferred to walk . Also, as per the calculation it was assumed that most of the Europeans would travel by their own vehicles and hence a lot of parking space was allotted for the cars. Whereas most of the Europeans came by buses and bicycles and the facilities for the bus drivers to park their buses and the rest came out be inadequate and as a result the company was forced to reduce the space for parking lots and provide more space for the buses and the bicycles. 6. Misunderstanding of French labor laws. 7. Violation of French labor law. 8. Miscalculation of risk factor 9. Incorrect global staffing policies and hr orientations :Ethnocentric and polycentric 2. Misunderstanding French traditions and habits: celebrating Halloween instead of French festivals. 3. Nationalistic sentiments of  French people: Change in name from Euro Disney to Disneyland Paris 4. Staffing and training problems 5. Rigid Disney dress code 6. Operational errors 7. Labour costs 8. Labour disputes 9. communication problems 10. cultural operational issues Power distance  · Incorrect global staffing policies and hr orientations: Ethnocentric and polycentric The French were confused when Disney appointed mostly American-born managers into the front-line supervisory positions at Euro Disneyland many of whom were not fluent in the French language. Individualism  · Rigid Disney dress code  · threatening highly individualistic French cultural traditions Individualism is the cultural dimension that measures to what extent people to look after themselves and their immediate family members only Americas individualism score of 91 is the highest in the world. Frances score of 71 is also high, 65% more than t